The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) announced the India Rankings 2023 (8^th consecutive edition) of higher education institutions in New Delhi. In all, 5,543 institutions offered themselves for ranking under ‘overall’, category-specific and/or domain-specific rankings for India Rankings 2023. 

Overall rankings — The IIT-Madras remained the best educational institution in overall rankings for the fifth consecutive term.

It has also been ranked the best engineering college for the eighth consecutive year (from 2016 to 2023).

Best university — The Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru ranked as the best university in the country for eight years in a row.

It stood first in ‘Research Institutions’ category too, for the third consecutive year

Best college — Miranda House, Delhi is ranked the best college for the seventh consecutive year.

Top management institute — Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad is the top management institute for the fourth consecutive year.

Top in pharmaceutical studies — National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad is ranked number one (first time) for pharmaceutical studies.

Best medical and dental college — The AIIMS, Delhi is ranked the best medical college (for the sixth consecutive year), and Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai is the top dental college.

AIIMS is ranked at sixth position in Overall category thereby improving from its ninth position in 2022.

Best law college — National Law School of India University, Bengaluru is ranked the best law college in the country for the sixth consecutive year.

First in Architecture subject — IIT-Roorkee stood at first position in Architecture subject.

Agriculture sector — Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi took the top slot in ‘Agriculture and Allied Sectors’.

Topper in innovation category — IIT-Kanpur topped the ‘Innovation’ category.

About the NIRF -

Ø  The NIRF was launched by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD now Ministry of Education) in 2015 (first edition came in 2016).

Ø  This framework, which is the first-ever effort by the Government of India, outlines a methodology to rank HEIs across the country.

Ø  While participation in the NIRF was initially voluntary, it became mandatory in 2018 for all government-run educational institutions.

Ø  Parameters — Teaching, learning and resources, research and professional practices, graduation outcomes, outreach and inclusivity and perception.

Ø  Categories — NIRF ranks best institutions across 13 categories - overall national ranking, universities, engineering, college, medical, management, pharmacy, law, architecture, dental and research, Innovation and Agriculture & Allied Sectors.

Significance -

Ø  The NIRF process gives detailed feedback regarding a HEI’s strengths and weaknesses

Ø  The NIRF assisted institutions in gaining a better understanding of their annual performance as well as their competitors and peer performers.

Ø  This provides other benefits, such as attracting industry for better placement and serving as a credible resource for parents and students to learn about the HEIs.

Ø  The NIRF indirectly assists top-performing institutions in building their brand and gaining widespread recognition without incurring additional marketing and branding costs.

An electronic track management system used by the railways has become the focus of investigations after the recent train crash in Odisha’s Balasore district. The crash, involving two express trains and a goods train, left around 275 passengers dead and more than 1,000 injured.

Minister for Railways Ashwini Vaishnaw said a change made in the electronic interlocking and point machine led to the accident. 

What is interlocking system?

Ø  Interlocking in railway signalling systems is a crucial safety mechanism used in the operation of train movements on railway tracks.

Ø  It refers to a mechanism that controls the movement of trains to ensure trains move safely through a controlled area.

Ø  The system is an arrangement of signals and points, which may be inter-connected mechanically or electrically or both.

Ø  These arrangements operate in a manner so that a train can move from one track or junction to another safely, without coming in the way of another train.

What is electronic interlocking (EI)?

Ø  EI is an advanced signalling, computer-based system that uses electronic components to manage the movement of trains and the configuration of tracks.

Ø  The EI, which is based on software, is designed to prevent two trains from running on the same track at the same time.

Ø  It ensures that a train gets a go-ahead only when the route ahead is clear.

Ø  The system is an alternative to the conventional Relay Interlocking system.

Ø  The interlocking system is usually operated and monitored by trained personnel from the signalling and telecommunications department in Railways, often known as ‘signallers’ or signal operators.

Ø  They are responsible for setting the signals, monitoring track circuits, and ensuring the safe movement of trains.

Three crucial elements of EI —

Signal —

Ø  Based on the status of the track ahead, signals are used to tell a train to stop (red light), proceed (green), or exercise caution (yellow).

Track circuit —

Ø  These are electrical circuits on tracks to detect the presence of a vehicle or a train on a section of track.

Ø  Track circuits help to verify whether a particular route is clear or occupied and if it is safe for a train to proceed.

Point switch —

Ø  A train can change its track using a point. These are movable sections of a track which guide the wheels towards either the straight or diverging track.

Ø  Switch points are operated using switches to lead trains in the desired direction.

Ø  For instance, if a train has to change lines, the switch point is activated ahead of time and the point is locked.

Ø  A point machine is a device used for locking point switches and plays an important role in the safe running of trains.

Functioning —

Ø  The EI signal system uses two factors to determine when a train can proceed: the direction of the track and whether the alternate track is clear.

Ø  First, the system checks if the train needs to continue on the current track or switch to a different one.

Ø  Then, it guides the train to an available track at a junction.

Ø  Special circuits ensure that another train cannot enter that section of track at the same time.

Ø  All activities in the signalling system are recorded in a microprocessor-based system called a data logger.

Ø  It acts like the black box of an aircraft and can store and process signal data to generate reports.

Ø  How does the system sense whether a track is occupied?

Ø  There are various kinds of track-occupancy sensing devices. Generally, sensors are installed on the tracks that detect the passage of wheels on the rails.

Ø  These are also called axle counters.

Ø  They count how many sets of wheels or axles have passed over them in order to determine whether the entire train has passed through.

How safe is this system?

Ø  If any of the three components (signals, points, and track occupancy sensors) does not correspond to the overall ‘safe’ logic fed into the computer, the system will work to stop the oncoming train.

Ø  It is called a fail-safe system, so it means that even if it fails, all the signals will turn red and all train operations will stop.

Status of implementation —

As of 2022, 2,888 stations in India were equipped with an electronic interlocking system — comprising 45.5% of the Indian Railways network.

The Law Commission, in its 280th report, said that there is no justification for introducing any change in the law relating to adverse possession.

What is Adverse Possession?

Ø  Adverse possession is the legal process whereby a non-owner occupant of a piece of land gains title and ownership of that land after a certain period of time.

Ø  The concept of adverse possession stems from the idea that land must not be left vacant but instead, be put to judicious use.

Ø  Essentially, adverse possession refers to the hostile possession of property, which must be “continuous, uninterrupted, and peaceful.”

Legality of Adverse Possession in India -

Ø  The concept originally dates back to 2000 BC, finding its roots in the Hammurabi Code.

Ø  The Hammurabi code of laws, a collection of 282 rules, established standards for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice.

Ø  It is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC.

Ø  First legal statute was the Statute of Westminster, 1275 in England.

Ø  The first attempt to bring the law of limitation to India was the “Act XIV of 1859”, which regulated the limitation of civil suits in British India.

Ø  After the passage of the Limitation Act in 1963, the law on adverse possession underwent significant changes.

What provisions did the Limitation Act, 1963 bring with It?

Ø  The 1963 Act fortified the position of the true owner of the land, as he now had to merely prove his title, while the burden of proof of adverse possession shifted to the person claiming it.

Ø  Under the Limitation Act, 1963, any person in possession of private land for over 12 years or government land for over 30 years can become the owner of that property.

Supreme Court on Adverse Possession -

Ø  In the 2004 Apex Court ruling in Karnataka Board of Wakf v Government of India, the court dealt with the ingredients of adverse possession.

Ø  With respect to a person who claims adverse possession, these were the judgements made by the Court —

Ø  On what date he came into possession,

Ø  What was the nature of his possession,

Ø  Whether the factum of possession was known to the other party,

Ø  How long his possession has continued, and

Ø  His possession was open and undisturbed.

Ø  However, in a series of decisions, the SC recommended that the government seriously consider the issue of “adverse possession” and make suitable changes.

Why did the Supreme Court suggest changes?

Ø  A two-judge SC bench, in its 2008 ruling in Hemaji Waghaji Jat v. Bhikhabhai Khengarbhai Harijan and Others, observed that the law of adverse possession “ousts an owner on the basis of inaction within limitation” and is “irrational, illogical, and wholly disproportionate”.

Ø  The court said that the law as it exists is extremely harsh for the true owner and a windfall for a dishonest person who has illegally taken possession of the property.

Ø  Adding that the law should not benefit the illegal action of a “rank trespasser” who had wrongfully taken possession of the true owner’s property, the court said that it also “places a premium on dishonesty”.

Ø  Following this, on December 19, 2008, a reference was made to the Law Commission by the Ministry of Law and Justice, requesting it to examine the matter and furnish its report on the same.

Law Commission’s opinion on adverse possession -

Ø  The 22nd Law Commission, in its report, has said that there is no justification for introducing any change in the law relating to adverse possession.

Ø  The Law Commission’s rationale is that “society will benefit from someone making use of land the owner leaves idle,” and “persons who come to regard the occupant as owner may be protected.”

Ø  The report said that the original title holder who neglected to enforce his rights over the land cannot be permitted to re-enter the land after a long passage of time.

Ø  However, two of its ex officio members filed a dissent note stating that the law does not stand judicial scrutiny and “promotes false claims under the colour of adverse possession”.

What did the dissent note say?

Ø  Citing troubles that true owners have been subjected to, the note said that the already overburdened machinery of the courts is further saddled with avoidable work, much to the misery of the litigants.

Ø  “lf the law of adverse possession is struck off from the Limitation Act it will not hinder anybody’s right nor will it cause any neglect of land resources,” the note reads.

Ø  The fact that land prices are skyrocketing in both rural and urban areas defeated the Commission’s argument that land is not put to proper use, the note said.

Ø  “In an over-populous country like India where land is scarce, the law of adverse possession only promotes false claims under the colour of adverse possession which ultimately does not stand judicial scrutiny,” the note contended.

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has debarred the Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS) from offering open and distance learning (ODL) and online programmes. NMIMS started its sub-campuses in five different locations without requisite permissions. Although the UGC’s decision sends a strong message, it would have been more credible if this was done through a transparent process.

UGC’s Guidelines for Institutions Offering ODL -

Ø  Distance Education Bureau of the UGC rules state that all Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) offering open learning programmes are required to abide by the UGC (ODL Programmes and Online Programmes) Regulations 2020 and its amendments.

Ø  The HEIs are also required to adhere to the UGC’s policy of Territorial Jurisdiction and

Ø  Learner Support Centres (LSC) as specified.

Ø  HEIs are also required to get the duration of the course, entry level qualifications and number of credits offered in compliance to UGC norms.

UGC’s policy of territorial jurisdiction -

Ø  In case of State Universities (both Government funded & Private), the Territorial Jurisdiction will be as per their Acts and Statutes but not beyond the boundaries of their respective states.

Ø  In case of Deemed to be Universities, the Territorial Jurisdiction will be as per the notification of Govt. of India to accord them this status until a policy decision is taken by the UGC.

Ø  The Territorial Jurisdiction in case of Private Institutions (other than Universities) will be headquarters - any such institution desires to offer programmes beyond its headquarters then it should establish new institutions as per norms.

Ø  No University/ Institution will be allowed to franchise the Study centres; the Universities/ Institutions will have to operate the study centres themselves.

Issues with UGC’s ODL Regulations -

Lack of A+ Grade Institutes —

Ø  One of the major drawbacks of the UGC regulation is the lack of institutes that meet the standards.

Ø  India does not have many institutes that hold a NAAC score of 3.26 or more (A+ grade).

Monopoly and cartelisation —

Ø  ODL remain restricted to a few universities which could lead to monopoly and cartelisation.

Ø  This leads to an immediate fall in the availability of options for the students.

 Lack of Regulatory Bodies —

Ø  While the UGC says that the universities must get the prior approval for the courses from the respective regulatory authorities, not all the courses have regulatory body yet.

Ø  Also, there are no NAAC or NIRF systems in place for National Open Learning institutes, such as Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU).

Loss of Funds —

Ø  ODL courses are a major source of funds for universities. The new regulations will have a disastrous effect on revenue collection of universities.

Ø  UGC rules also state that the state universities need to operate within the state and not beyond the territorial jurisdiction, and this has caused even the approved universities to lose their learning centres. 

Would create huge financial burden on students —

Ø  Distance learning courses are cheaper and can be accessed from even remote areas of the country.

Ø  This makes it an affordable and efficient means of continuing education for the people who are working and earning simultaneously.

Ø  UGC regulations will lead to the lack of availability of this cheap learning method.

Ø  The approved universities, especially the private ones, can take advantage of the situation and increase the fees for the online courses.

Contrary to the idea of open learning —

Ø  The technology on which ODL rides knows no geographic or political boundaries.

Ø  It is absurd to artificially impose restrictions and stopping someone from Delhi registering for education in Maharashtra.

Recommendation made by Madhav Menon Committee -

Ø  Creating a different statute for distance learning. The idea is to set up an independent regulatory authority to be called the Distance Education Council of India (DECI).

Ø  Once the National Commission for Higher Education and Research Bill is passed, DECI and other current regulators like UGC, AICTE, and MCI would eventually be absorbed into the proposed umbrella regulator.

Ø  Once the system is in place, the DECI of UGC may start the recognition of ODL institutions as per the newly developed system and enforce norms and standards laid by it.

Way forward -

UGC must adopt technology for compliance —

Ø  Any regulatory system that thrives on inspections to deliver on its objectives will suffer from subjectivity, arbitrariness, and corruption.

Ø  For AICTE, the watershed came in 2009 when it introduced complete e-governance resulting in transparency and accountability.

Ø  UGC too must adopt technology rather than rely on inspections as a primary method of compliance.

Ø  Change the Notion of Profit from Education — Perhaps it is time to change our notion about “education not for profit.” The money must come from somewhere. If the state also does not provide resources, then the burden will shift to the students.

Conclusion -

UGC’s clamp down on distance education goes against the spirit of NEP2020. It is responsibility of UGC to ensure that the country achieves the target of 50 per cent GER (Gross Enrolment Ratio) by 2035 enshrined in NEP2020.

In answer to an RTI request, the Archaeological Survey of India’s (ASI) Public Information Officer stated that information on who built the Agra Fort is not available with his office.

About Agra Fort -

Location —

It is a large 16th-century fortress of red sandstone located on the banks of Yamuna River in the historic city of Agra, west-central Uttar Pradesh.

It is about 5 km northwest of its more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal.

History —

It was built under the commission of Emperor Akbar in 1565.

It was only during the reign of Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current state.

It was the main residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638, when the capital was shifted from Agra to Delhi.

The fort was invaded and captured by the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century.

Thereafter, it changed hands between the Marathas and their foes many times.

After their catastrophic defeat at Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, Marathas remained out of the region for the next decade. Finally Mahadji Shinde took the fort in 1785.

It was lost by the Marathas to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1803.

The fort was the site of a battle during the Indian rebellion of 1857, which caused the end of the British East India Company’s rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain.

Features —

The fort is crescent-shaped, with a long, nearly straight wall facing the Yamuna river on the east side.

The fort houses a maze of buildings, including vast underground sections.

The outer wall is surrounded by a wide and deep moat on three sides.

The Agra Fort has four main gateways — the Khizri Gate, Amar Singh Gate, Delhi Gate and Ghazni Gate.

Among the major attractions in the fort is Jahāngīr’s Palace (Jahāngīri Mahal), built by Akbar as a private palace for his son Jahāngir.

The fort complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.