General Studies Paper – II: Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice, and International Relations.

Context

During Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Indonesia (7-8 July 2026), India and Indonesia shared a significant Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for the conservation and restoration of the historic Prambanan Temple compound. Prime Minister Modi and Indonesian President Prabowo Subianto also formally launched the restoration project by making a joint visit to this temple in Yogyakarta. This initiative not only highlights India's deep cultural influence in Southeast Asia but also connects the ancient historical relations between the two countries with contemporary diplomacy. Notably, among more than 20 agreements signed in sectors such as defense, maritime security, strategic minerals, technology, digital payments, and education during the Prime Minister's three-day visit to Indonesia, this restoration agreement remained the most remarkable outcome from a cultural perspective.

What is Prambanan Temple?

Prambanan is a massive 9th-century Hindu temple compound located on the island of Java (Yogyakarta) in Indonesia. It is the largest Hindu temple compound in Indonesia and one of the grandest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia, world-renowned for its tri-centric architectural layout and the exquisite Ramayana relief carvings sculpted on its walls. Originally, the compound was a massive group of approximately 240 temples.

Reasons for Being in Discussion

• Bilateral Agreement for Restoration: India has announced financial and technical assistance for the restoration of this 1,000-year-old temple.

• Role of ASI: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) will lead the conservation work of this UNESCO World Heritage Site. A team from the ASI had already conducted a preliminary survey of the temple compound in March 2026.
• Display of Cultural Diplomacy: The joint visit of both heads of state to the Prambanan Temple underlines the diplomatic importance of this historical heritage.

History of Prambanan Temple

• Construction and Dynasty: The construction of this grand temple was initiated in the 9th century (around 850 AD) by King Rakai Pikatan of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty.

• Series of Expansion: The first major expansion and formal inauguration of the temple took place during the reign of King Lokapala, the successor of Rakai Pikatan. Following this, further expansion and beautification of the compound were carried out during the reign of the subsequent ruler, Rakai Balitung.
• Religious Dedication: This temple compound is dedicated to the Hindu Trinity of Trimurti—Lord Shiva (the Destroyer), Lord Vishnu (the Preserver), and Lord Brahma (the Creator).
• An Example of Religious Harmony: Its location close to the famous Buddhist temple of Borobudur indicates that Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted in peace and harmony in ancient Java.
• Historical Decline: Due to the relocation of the Mataram Dynasty to East Java in the 10th century and devastating earthquakes, this compound remained neglected and in ruins for centuries. Considering its historical and architectural significance, UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in the year 1991.

Architecture of Prambanan Compound

• Tri-centric Structure: The entire temple compound is divided into three concentric zones. The outer section contained hundreds of small Perwara temples, while the innermost section houses 16 main temples.

• Main Shiva Temple: The temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, located in the center, is the largest and is approximately 47 meters high. The Brahma temple is established to its north, and the Vishnu temple to its south.
• Statues in the Sanctum Sanctorum: The sanctum sanctorum of the main Shiva temple has four chambers—the eastern chamber houses the four-armed idol of Lord Shiva himself, the northern chamber houses Goddess Durga (worshiped as Mahishasuramardini, the consort of Shiva), the western chamber houses Lord Ganesha (son of Shiva), and the southern chamber houses the statue of Sage Agastya. Agastya is counted among the most revered sages of the Saptarishis, and in tradition, he is considered a symbol of the divine guru-form of Shiva.
• Ramayana Murals: The entire saga of India’s great epic 'Ramayana' is depicted in sequential and vivid carvings on the inner walls of the temple.

Javanese Folklore: Roro Jonggrang

According to local belief, Prince Bandung Bondowoso was in love with Princess Roro Jonggrang. As a test of love, the princess put forward an impossible condition of building a temple with 1,000 statues in a single night. With the help of supernatural powers, the prince was about to complete the task, when the princess created an illusion of dawn by asking the villagers to pound rice and light fires. Angered by this deception, the prince, who could only complete 999 statues, cursed Roro Jonggrang to become the 1,000th stone statue. For this reason, Prambanan is also called the 'Temple of a Thousand Statues' in the local language.

Role of India in Temple Conservation

• Technical Expertise: The ASI team surveyed the temple compound in March 2026 to prepare the blueprint for scientific restoration.

• Anastylosis Technique: This internationally recognized technique will be used in the conservation work, under which original stone fragments and architectural blocks scattered in the debris are identified and scientifically re-established in their correct original positions.
• Complex Cataloging: The biggest challenge before the ASI is to accurately classify thousands of stone blocks scattered in the compound and link them to their respective temple structures.

India's Cultural Diplomacy: Comparative Examples

The conservation of ancient Hindu and Buddhist monuments abroad is a major component of India’s 'Soft Power' and 'Act East Policy'. India has previously restored several important sites in Southeast Asia:

Analysis

The restoration of the Prambanan Temple is not just an architectural project, but it is a resurgence of India's deep historical and geo-cultural influence in the Indo-Pacific region. This cooperation demonstrates that India’s foreign policy is not limited only to economic and strategic interests, but is also building long-term trust with partner countries through cultural links. Additionally, it reflects India's consistent approach of earning regional goodwill by using its archaeological expertise in countries like Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Laos.

Way Forward

• Digital Documentation: ASI should utilize modern three-dimensional (3D) laser scanning and digital cataloging so that accurate identification of scattered stones becomes possible.

• Promoting Cultural Tourism: India and Indonesia should work toward establishing a 'Cultural Corridor' between Prambanan and temples of the Chola/Pallava periods in South India.
• Academic Exchange: Joint historical and archaeological research on ancient maritime trade and cultural exchanges between universities of both nations should be encouraged.

Conclusion

The conservation of the Prambanan Temple is an excellent symbol of 'Shared Heritage, Shared Future' between India and Indonesia. Restoring this centuries-old Shiva temple to its original grandeur is not only a significant step toward the preservation of global cultural heritage, but it also provides a new, dynamic, and strong foundation to India's ancient intimate ties with Southeast Asia in contemporary global politics.

Context

Historically, Australia has been dominated by migrants of British origin, which shaped its national and cultural identity for nearly two centuries. However, the current demographic shifts have created a new history by leaving this colonial legacy behind. According to recently released official data, the Indian diaspora community has now officially become the largest foreign-born community in Australia, overtaking the England-born population for the first time. This shift is a milestone turning point in Australia's self-awareness and the redefinition of its national identity. Against this backdrop, Prime Minister Narendra Modi's third visit to Australia is taking place, where the Indian diaspora community is emerging as the main attraction on the diplomatic stage of both countries.

A New Migration Era

• Historical Background: Unlike Indian migration to the US and UK, the history of Indian migrants in Australia is relatively new. The first major wave of professional migrants started here only in the 1960s and 1970s, when Australia abolished its racist 'White Australia Policy' (White Australia Policy), which previously allowed only European migrants.

• Impact of 'New India': The current diaspora community is very young and dynamic. Most of these people have arrived under rapid outward migration during the 'New India' era after the year 2014, driven by individual economic ambitions and a deep connection with India.
• Strong Connection: This young generation is still strongly connected to its roots today through family ties, business, remittances, and a resurgent nationalist identity.

Reasons for Being in Discussion

• Official Historical Shift: The number of Indian migrants has reached the top position by overtaking the England-origin population.

• Melbourne Meets Modi: A huge public diaspora event is being organized in Melbourne during Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Australia. This event is a vibrant demonstration of the growing influence of the diaspora in the bilateral relations of both countries.
• New Framework of Relations (from 3Cs to 4Ds): India-Australia relations were traditionally limited only to '3Cs' (Cricket, Curry, and Commonwealth). But today this partnership has become far more strategic and comprehensive, transforming into '4Ds', namely Democracy, Defence, Diaspora, and Dosti (friendship).

India-Australia Strategic Cooperation and 'Quad'

• Decade of Institution-Building: Over the last decade, both countries have taken several strong steps in the defense and strategic sectors.

• Role of the Quad: India and Australia, along with the United States and Japan, are active members of the 'Quad' (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue). This informal security group has today become the mainstay of both countries' 'Indo-Pacific Strategy', ensuring free, open, and inclusive navigation in this region.

Emerging Challenges and Political Backlash Against Indian Migrants

• Right-Wing and Anti-Immigration Wave: The impact of the rising anti-immigration wave globally is now visible in Australia as well, where Indian migrants are being targeted.

• Street Protests and One Nation Party: During the past year, rallies under nationalist banners like 'March for Australia' have increased. The right-wing populist 'One Nation Party' is making the growing number of Indian migrants a key political issue against the current ruling left-of-centre 'Labor Party'.
• Asset vs. Liability: While the Indian diaspora is a major economic asset and a 'force multiplier' for the Australian economy and multicultural society, attempts are being made to project them as a liability in public discourse due to this growing polarization.

Need for a Real Understanding Beyond Numbers and Narratives

• Lack of Evidence-Based Studies: Governments often view the success of migrants only through the lens of headline statistics of income, education, and trade. But the real need is to understand how the diaspora community is contributing and building trust in Australian civic and social life.

• Diverse Experience: The Indian diaspora is not a monolithic community; their social integration and migration experiences are diverse, requiring deep and systematic research to be fully understood.

Potential Implications of This Change

• Permanent Transformation of Identity: With this demographic rise of Indian migrants, Australia's national identity will permanently transform from a traditional 'Antipodean' (southern hemisphere, British-centric) identity to a broader identity closely associated with India and the Indo-Pacific region.

• Impact on Strategic Partnership: The domestic political approach toward the diaspora will directly affect the future strategic relations between India and Australia.

India's Concerns

• Diaspora Security and Dignity: Due to the rising anti-immigration protests and racial tensions in Australia's domestic landscape, the safety and social harmony of Indian students and professionals living there is a major diplomatic concern for India.

• Protection of Soft Power: Indian migrants are considered India's greatest 'soft power' on the global stage; any negative political rhetoric associated with them could affect other areas of bilateral cooperation.

Analysis

The current crisis is not merely an economic bridge or a cultural symbol connecting two countries, but they are living diplomatic constituencies whose experiences shape the direction of bilateral policies. Amid the changing social fabric of Australia, the success of Indian migrants will depend on how sensitive the policies of both countries are toward their social trust and security, rather than merely treating them as a talking point of political discourse.

Way Forward

• Policies for Social Cohesion: The Australian government should implement policies to integrate migrants into the social mainstream and prevent racial discrimination on the ground rather than just keeping them on paper.

• Civil Society and Academic Research: Universities and civil societies of both countries should work together to promote long-term, evidence-based research on the lives of migrants, their problems, and their roles.
• Flexible Diplomatic Engagement: India must maintain continuous dialogue with Australia on diaspora issues so that domestic political changes do not affect strategic defense and trade agreements.

Conclusion

The historic rise of Indian migrants in Australia presents a unique opportunity toward the strengthening of bilateral relations. If democracy, defense, diaspora, and dosti are to remain the genuine pillars of this strategic partnership, the diaspora must be treated not merely as a symbol, but as a valued community whose aspirations and experiences are at the center of diplomacy.

General Studies Paper – II: Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International Relations.

Context

Recently, following a sharp military conflict that arose between the US and Iran, both sides had entered into a temporary peace and ceasefire agreement to reduce tension. However, the recent attacks on commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz and the subsequent direct military action taken by both countries against each other have ended this short-lived peace. Along with this, this conflict has once again reached a state of full-blown and uncontrolled war.

What is the US-Iran Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)?

• Signature and Objective: A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the two countries on June 17, 2026, the main objective of which was to extend the temporary ceasefire and initiate formal talks for a final peaceful resolution.
• Key Provisions: Under this agreement, the safe passage of commercial vessels and oil tankers through the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz was guaranteed. In return, the US had granted permission to Iran to sell oil by relaxing some sanctions imposed on it.

Reasons for Being in Discussion

• Termination of Ceasefire: US President Donald Trump announced at the NATO summit held in Ankara, Turkey, that the ceasefire between the US and Iran is now completely "over" and dealing with Iran is just a waste of time. He indicated that while the doors of diplomacy remain open for negotiators, they will continue military strikes.
• Iran's Stand: Describing the US airstrikes as "criminal aggression", Iran has announced that these violations by the US have rendered the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) completely 'ineffective' and void.
• Military Confrontation and Casualties: Eight military personnel of Iran were killed in airstrikes carried out by the US on the southern Iranian coast. In retaliation, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) has claimed to have carried out missile and drone attacks on 85 US military bases located in Bahrain (Port Salman) and Kuwait (Ali Al-Salem Air Base) and shot down an American MQ-9 Reaper drone.

Immediate Causes of the Escalation

• Attacks on Tankers: Deadly attacks were carried out on three commercial tankers—Marshall Islands-flagged 'M/T Al Rekayyat', Saudi Arabia-flagged 'M/T Wedyan', and Liberian-flagged 'M/T Cyprus Prosperity'—passing through the alternative route (Omani coast) of the Strait of Hormuz.

• Reversal of Sanctions: Holding Iran responsible for these attacks, the US immediately revoked the sanctions waiver granted for oil sales, which turned the tension into a military conflict.

Who Controls the Strait of Hormuz?

• Strategic Location: The Strait of Hormuz is the world's most sensitive oil transit route (chokepoint) connecting the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea, through which approximately one-fifth of the global oil supply passes.

• Dispute over Control: The northern part of this strait falls under the territorial jurisdiction of Iran, while the southern part is under the jurisdiction of Oman. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the rule of "transit passage" applies here.
• Iran's Claim: Iran has established a "designated route" along its coast and has directed all foreign vessels to pass only in coordination with its local authorities, which the US considers a violation of its freedom of navigation.

NATO Summit and What is NATO?

NATO (NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization): This is an inter-governmental military alliance established by the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty) signed in 1949. Its headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium.

• Principle of Collective Defence: The most important provision of NATO is 'Article 5', which is based on the principle of 'collective defence'; under this, an attack on any one member country is considered an attack on all member countries.
• Ankara Summit: The summit of the year 2026 is being held in Ankara, the capital of Turkey. Turkey is a strategic member of NATO, which, being situated at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, plays the role of a mediator in the security policies of the Middle East (West Asia). From this very platform, President Trump has announced a tough stance against Iran.

Potential Implications of the Attacks

• Energy Crisis and Global Inflation: Disruption in the Strait of Hormuz will cause a massive surge in global crude oil prices, increasing the risk of energy insecurity and imported inflation worldwide.

• Risk of Regional War: Direct Iranian attacks on US bases in sovereign countries like Bahrain and Kuwait could turn this bilateral conflict into a wider regional war, dragging other Gulf countries into it as well.
• Disruption in Global Supply Chain: Obstruction of international shipping lanes will lead to a massive increase in the cost of global trade and logistics.

India's Concerns

• Energy Security: India imports more than about 80% of its crude oil requirements, a large portion of which comes through the Persian Gulf and the Hormuz route. A crisis on this route is a direct threat to India's national energy security.

• Security of Commercial Shipping: India has expressed deep concern over the fresh targeting of commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz. The Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has urged all parties to exercise extreme restraint.
• Diaspora Security and Remittances: More than about 8.5 million Indian expats reside in the Gulf countries. Instability in this region will not only threaten their security but will also adversely affect the remittances received by India.

Analysis

The current crisis is not merely a military confrontation between two nations, but is the result of a geopolitical race to establish sovereign control over strategic chokepoints in a multipolar world order. The weaponization of sanctions by the US and the use of asymmetric warfare tactics by Iran reflect the failure of diplomacy, which is ultimately weakening the rules-based global maritime order.

Way Forward

• Restoration of Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations (UN) and regional powers (such as India and the European Union) should play the role of mediator to bring both sides back to the negotiating table.

• International Cooperation for Maritime Security: An impartial, international security force or patrol should be formed to protect commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz so that freedom of navigation remains intact.
• India's Diplomatic Activism: India should utilize its strategic relations with both Iran and the US to activate 'back-channel diplomacy' to defuse the tension.

Conclusion

The growing military standoff between the US and Iran is a highly serious challenge to global economic stability and the rules-based international order. Making a global lifeline like the Strait of Hormuz an arena of conflict is not in the interest of any party. The only lasting solution to the current crisis lies in diplomacy based on the principles of 'equal sovereignty and mutual dialogue' instead of military aggression.

General Studies Paper – II: Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International Relations.

Context

Recently, following a sharp military conflict that arose between the US and Iran, both sides had entered into a temporary peace and ceasefire agreement to reduce tension. However, the recent attacks on commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz and the subsequent direct military action taken by both countries against each other have ended this short-lived peace. Along with this, this conflict has once again reached a state of full-blown and uncontrolled war.

What is the US-Iran Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)?

• Signature and Objective: A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the two countries on June 17, 2026, the main objective of which was to extend the temporary ceasefire and initiate formal talks for a final peaceful resolution.
• Key Provisions: Under this agreement, the safe passage of commercial vessels and oil tankers through the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz was guaranteed. In return, the US had granted permission to Iran to sell oil by relaxing some sanctions imposed on it.

Reasons for Being in Discussion

• Termination of Ceasefire: US President Donald Trump announced at the NATO summit held in Ankara, Turkey, that the ceasefire between the US and Iran is now completely "over" and dealing with Iran is just a waste of time. He indicated that while the doors of diplomacy remain open for negotiators, they will continue military strikes.
• Iran's Stand: Describing the US airstrikes as "criminal aggression", Iran has announced that these violations by the US have rendered the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) completely 'ineffective' and void.
• Military Confrontation and Casualties: Eight military personnel of Iran were killed in airstrikes carried out by the US on the southern Iranian coast. In retaliation, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) has claimed to have carried out missile and drone attacks on 85 US military bases located in Bahrain (Port Salman) and Kuwait (Ali Al-Salem Air Base) and shot down an American MQ-9 Reaper drone.

Immediate Causes of the Escalation

• Attacks on Tankers: Deadly attacks were carried out on three commercial tankers—Marshall Islands-flagged 'M/T Al Rekayyat', Saudi Arabia-flagged 'M/T Wedyan', and Liberian-flagged 'M/T Cyprus Prosperity'—passing through the alternative route (Omani coast) of the Strait of Hormuz.

• Reversal of Sanctions: Holding Iran responsible for these attacks, the US immediately revoked the sanctions waiver granted for oil sales, which turned the tension into a military conflict.

Who Controls the Strait of Hormuz?

• Strategic Location: The Strait of Hormuz is the world's most sensitive oil transit route (chokepoint) connecting the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea, through which approximately one-fifth of the global oil supply passes.

• Dispute over Control: The northern part of this strait falls under the territorial jurisdiction of Iran, while the southern part is under the jurisdiction of Oman. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the rule of "transit passage" applies here.
• Iran's Claim: Iran has established a "designated route" along its coast and has directed all foreign vessels to pass only in coordination with its local authorities, which the US considers a violation of its freedom of navigation.

NATO Summit and What is NATO?

NATO (NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization): This is an inter-governmental military alliance established by the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty) signed in 1949. Its headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium.

• Principle of Collective Defence: The most important provision of NATO is 'Article 5', which is based on the principle of 'collective defence'; under this, an attack on any one member country is considered an attack on all member countries.
• Ankara Summit: The summit of the year 2026 is being held in Ankara, the capital of Turkey. Turkey is a strategic member of NATO, which, being situated at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, plays the role of a mediator in the security policies of the Middle East (West Asia). From this very platform, President Trump has announced a tough stance against Iran.

Potential Implications of the Attacks

• Energy Crisis and Global Inflation: Disruption in the Strait of Hormuz will cause a massive surge in global crude oil prices, increasing the risk of energy insecurity and imported inflation worldwide.

• Risk of Regional War: Direct Iranian attacks on US bases in sovereign countries like Bahrain and Kuwait could turn this bilateral conflict into a wider regional war, dragging other Gulf countries into it as well.
• Disruption in Global Supply Chain: Obstruction of international shipping lanes will lead to a massive increase in the cost of global trade and logistics.

India's Concerns

• Energy Security: India imports more than about 80% of its crude oil requirements, a large portion of which comes through the Persian Gulf and the Hormuz route. A crisis on this route is a direct threat to India's national energy security.

• Security of Commercial Shipping: India has expressed deep concern over the fresh targeting of commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz. The Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has urged all parties to exercise extreme restraint.
• Diaspora Security and Remittances: More than about 8.5 million Indian expats reside in the Gulf countries. Instability in this region will not only threaten their security but will also adversely affect the remittances received by India.

Analysis

The current crisis is not merely a military confrontation between two nations, but is the result of a geopolitical race to establish sovereign control over strategic chokepoints in a multipolar world order. The weaponization of sanctions by the US and the use of asymmetric warfare tactics by Iran reflect the failure of diplomacy, which is ultimately weakening the rules-based global maritime order.

Way Forward

• Restoration of Multilateral Diplomacy: The United Nations (UN) and regional powers (such as India and the European Union) should play the role of mediator to bring both sides back to the negotiating table.

• International Cooperation for Maritime Security: An impartial, international security force or patrol should be formed to protect commercial vessels in the Strait of Hormuz so that freedom of navigation remains intact.
• India's Diplomatic Activism: India should utilize its strategic relations with both Iran and the US to activate 'back-channel diplomacy' to defuse the tension.

Conclusion

The growing military standoff between the US and Iran is a highly serious challenge to global economic stability and the rules-based international order. Making a global lifeline like the Strait of Hormuz an arena of conflict is not in the interest of any party. The only lasting solution to the current crisis lies in diplomacy based on the principles of 'equal sovereignty and mutual dialogue' instead of military aggression.