CURRENT-AFFAIRS

• Archaeologists have recently unearthed two superimposed temples within the ancient megacity of Girsu in Iraq.
• Girsu, a prominent city of the Sumer civilization, was initially discovered in the 19th century through excavations led by the French archaeologist Ernest de Sarzec, beginning in the 1880s. This discovery was pivotal as it introduced the world to the existence of the Sumerian civilization, unveiling some of the most significant monuments of Mesopotamian art and architecture.

The Sumer civilization, flourishing from approximately 4100 to 1750 BCE in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), consisted of city-states rather than a unified political entity. Each city-state, governed by its own king, contributed to the advancement of technology and culture. The Sumerians were pioneers in various fields, including time measurement, writing (creating the earliest known writing system), and urban development (constructing the first known cities and establishing early legal codes).

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• According to a scientific survey report by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the current structure at the Bhojshala complex incorporates remnants from an earlier temple that once stood at the site.
• Key details about Bhojshala complex:
  • Located in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, the Bhojshala complex was originally constructed in 1034 AD by Raja Bhoja (1000-1055 A.D.), the prominent ruler of the Paramara dynasty.
  • Initially serving as a university, it attracted students from various regions who came to study disciplines such as music, Sanskrit, astronomy, yoga, Ayurveda, and philosophy.
  • Historical events include attacks on the complex: first by Alauddin Khilji in 1305 AD and later by Mehmudshah Khilji II in 1514 AD, who attempted to convert it into a dargah and encroached upon the Saraswati Temple land to build the 'Kamal Moulana' Makbara.
  • Notable inscriptions within the complex include hymns in the Prakrit language depicting the Karmavatar (crocodile incarnation) of Vishnu, as well as Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions detailing aspects of Sanskrit grammar.
  • Designated a monument of national importance in 1951 under the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951.
  • Currently protected by ASI under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.

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• Recently, the Tamil Nadu government unveiled a statue honoring Iyothee Thass Pandithar, a pioneering figure in Dalit rights and anti-caste activism, at Gandhi Mandapam in Chennai.
• About Iyothee Thass Pandithar:
  • Born on May 20, 1845, in the Madras presidency, Iyothee Thass was a staunch advocate against caste discrimination and a practitioner of Siddha medicine.
  • During the 1870s, he organized tribal communities such as the Todas and others from the Nilgiri Hills, galvanizing them into a significant force in the freedom movement.
  • In 1876, he founded the Advaidananda Sabha and collaborated with Rev. John Rathina to publish the influential magazine, Dravida Pandian.
  • In 1891, Iyothee Thass co-established the Dravida Mahajana Sabha alongside Rettamalai Srinivasan, furthering his commitment to social reform.
  • He was instrumental in founding the Sakya Buddhist Society, also known as the Indian Buddhist Association, in Madras in 1898, with branches across South India.
  • To support the activities of the society, he initiated the publication of the weekly magazine, Tamizhan, in 1907.

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• Recently, the Prime Minister commemorated the birth anniversary of Chandra Shekhar Azad.
• About Chandra Shekhar Azad:
  • Chandra Shekhar Azad was a revered figure in India's struggle for independence.
  • Born as Chandra Shekhar Tiwari on July 23, 1906, in Bhavra village, Madhya Pradesh, Azad embraced the spirit of revolution from a young age.
  • His determination to fight for India's freedom was ignited early on, and at just 15 years old, he joined Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • Azad was disheartened by Gandhi's decision to suspend the movement following the violent incident at Chauri Chaura in February 1922.
  • He became an active member of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which later evolved into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) under his leadership.
  • Azad collaborated closely with fellow revolutionaries, including the iconic Bhagat Singh, in their quest to overthrow British colonial rule.
  • His strategic brilliance was evident in significant acts of resistance such as the Kakori Train Robbery (1926), the attempt on the Viceroy's train (1926), and the killing of Saunders in Lahore (1928) as retaliation for Lala Lajpat Rai's death.
  • Azad's courage and leadership made him a symbol of defiance against the British authorities, living a fugitive life to evade capture.
  • In a dramatic standoff with British police at Alfred Park, Allahabad, in January 1931, Azad fought fiercely but ultimately chose to take his own life rather than be apprehended, declaring he would never be caught alive.

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• Archaeologists recently unearthed Vattezhuthu scripts along with eight Tamil inscriptions at the ancient Thalikiswarar temple, which dates back over 1100 years in Tirupur district, Tamil Nadu.
• Vattezhuthu, also known as Vatteluttu, was a prominent syllabic script used in southern India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka for writing Tamil and Malayalam languages. The term Vatteluttu is believed to denote meanings such as 'rounded script', 'northern script', or 'chiseled script'. It emerged in stone inscriptions across southern India around the 4th century AD and likely evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi script, a variant of Brahmi used for Old Tamil from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD.
• In Tamil Nadu, Vatteluttu was prevalent until the 9th century, while in Kerala, its usage extended until the 15th century. Over time, Vatteluttu transformed into the Malayalam script, incorporating elements from the Grantha script. Additionally, it gave rise to the Koleluttu script, which persisted in Kerala until the 19th century, notably among Christian and Muslim communities.
• This discovery at the Thalikiswarar temple provides valuable insights into the linguistic and cultural history of the region, shedding light on the evolution of writing systems in ancient South India.

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• Recently, UNESCO added the mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty in Assam, known as 'Moidams', to its prestigious World Heritage List.
• About Ahom Dynasty:
  • The Ahom Dynasty (1228–1826), originally known as the Kingdom of Assam during medieval times, flourished in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam for nearly 600 years. It successfully resisted Mughal expansion into Northeast India, establishing its sovereignty over the region. Founded by Sukaphaa, a Shan prince from Mong Mao who crossed the Patkai Mountains into Assam, the dynasty exerted profound political and social influence.
  • Although referred to as the Ahom kingdom in colonial and subsequent eras, it was ethnically diverse, with the Ahom people constituting less than 10% of the population by its later years. The rulers were known as 'Chaopha' or 'Swargadeo' by their subjects.
  • During the 17th century, the Ahom kingdom faced multiple Mughal invasions. In 1662, the capital Garhgaon was briefly occupied by Mir Jumla, but the Mughals were decisively defeated by the Ahoms under Lachit Borphukan at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671. Borphukan's leadership in this battle is legendary, marking a significant victory that ultimately expelled Mughal influence from the region by 1682.
  • However, the kingdom later weakened due to internal conflicts and Burmese invasions, culminating in its fall after the First Anglo-Burmese War. In 1826, following the Treaty of Yandabo, control of the Ahom kingdom passed into the hands of the British East India Company.
  • The inclusion of 'Moidams' on the UNESCO World Heritage List recognizes the cultural and historical significance of the Ahom dynasty's burial customs and their enduring legacy in Assam's heritage.

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• Researchers in China have recently identified a new dinosaur species named Qianlong shouhu, alongside numerous unhatched eggs.
• About Qianlong shouhu:
  • Qianlong shouhu is classified within the sauropodomorph group, which includes both sauropods and their early ancestors.
  • This dinosaur roamed what is now China during the Early Jurassic period, approximately 200 to 193 million years ago.
  • The species name translates to "a dragon in Guizhou that guards its embryos."
  • It was a medium-sized sauropodomorph, measuring around 20 feet in length and estimated to weigh about 1 ton.
  • The eggs of Qianlong shouhu were elliptical and relatively small, with a possible leathery texture to their shells, offering significant evidence for the earliest known leathery eggs.
• What are Sauropods?
  • Sauropods were the predominant herbivores of the Jurassic era, known for their long necks, tails, and four-legged stance.
  • These dinosaurs were among the largest land animals ever, with some reaching lengths of 40 to 150 feet or more from head to tail.
  • Sauropods typically weighed between 20 and 70 tons, comparable to 10 to 35 elephants.
  • They featured relatively small skulls and brains, with upright limbs resembling those of elephants.
  • Sauropods were one of the most enduring dinosaur groups, surviving for about 104 million years across diverse global habitats.
  • Fossil remains and footprints of sauropods have been discovered on every continent except Antarctica.
  • While they were most abundant during the Jurassic period, sauropods persisted into the Upper Cretaceous, until many other dinosaur species faced extinction.

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• A microscopic examination of 700,000-year-old miniature human arm and dental fossils has resolved the debate over the origins of Homo floresiensis.
• Homo floresiensis is a species of small archaic humans that lived on the Indonesian island of Flores approximately 60,000 years ago. Commonly referred to as the "Hobbit," this species has been exclusively discovered on Flores.
• The fossils of H. floresiensis are dated to between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, while stone tools associated with this species range from about 190,000 to 50,000 years old.
• Features:
  • Appearance: H. floresiensis individuals were about 3 feet 6 inches tall, had small brains, proportionally large teeth, forward-sloping shoulders, no chins, receding foreheads, and relatively large feet compared to their short legs.
  • Tools and Adaptations: Despite their small size and limited brain capacity, they created and used stone tools, hunted small elephants and large rodents, and dealt with predators such as giant Komodo dragons. They may also have used fire. Their small stature and reduced brain size may have been a result of island dwarfism, an evolutionary phenomenon caused by long-term isolation on a small island with limited resources and few predators.
  • Homo floresiensis is recognized as the smallest known species of the genus Homo, alongside the Stegodon elephant, which is also found on the island of Flores.

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• Recently, an Indian politician faced obstruction while attempting to visit Batadrava Than, a revered site nestled in the Nagaon district of Assam.
• Batadrava Than, also known as Bordowa Than, holds profound significance for Assamese Vaishnavites, serving as a sanctuary of spirituality at the birthplace of the esteemed Vaishnavite reformer-saint, Srimanta Sankardeva. Sankardeva's legacy is deeply intertwined with this sacred complex, as he established the inaugural Kirtan Ghar in 1494 AD to propagate the neo-Vaishnavite faith during the fifteenth century in Assam, advocating the Ek Saran Naam Dharma.
• Enclosed within a brick wall with two entrances, Batadrava Than boasts various structures including the expansive Kirtan Ghar, initially constructed by Sankardeva himself using temporary materials. The campus encompasses the Manikut, dedicated to housing sacred texts and manuscripts, along with diverse facilities such as Natghar (Drama hall), Alohighar (Guest room), Sabhaghar (Assembly hall), Rabhaghar (Music room), Hatipukhuri, Aakashi Ganga, and the festive temple, Doul mandir. Additionally, a mini-museum showcases historical artifacts, attracting devotees annually during the grand festival of Doul Mohotsava (Holi).
• Sankardeva's teachings emphasized societal equality, transcending caste differences and orthodox rituals, while promoting devotion to Lord Krishna through congregational singing and listening of His name and deeds. His philosophy, centered on prayer and chanting, rejected idol worship in favor of a spiritual practice grounded in devotion, with a focus on the four components of deva (god), naam (prayers), bhakats (devotees), and guru (teacher).

• In Japan, a recently discovered fossil of a Mosasaur, an extinct apex predator from the Late Cretaceous period, has captured attention.
• About Mosasaur:
  • Mosasaurs (family Mosasauridae) were formidable, large predatory marine reptiles that roamed the world's oceans during the Late Cretaceous epoch, spanning from 90 to 66 million years ago.
  • These reptiles are closely related to snakes and monitor lizards, and they ranked among the largest marine creatures of their time and some of the largest predatory reptiles overall.
  • Features:
    • Mosasaur species varied in size, with some individuals exceeding lengths of 50 feet.
    • They possessed a sleek, snake-like body structure with a large skull, elongated snout, and sharp teeth.

• A recent study reveals that Denisovans not only inhabited but thrived in the challenging high-altitude environment of the Tibetan plateau for over 100,000 years.
• About Denisovans:
  • Denisovans are an extinct species of hominid closely related to modern humans, discovered relatively recently in 2010 from remains found in a Siberian cave.
  • They inhabited diverse environments ranging from the cold mountains of Siberia and Tibet to the tropical jungles of Southeast Asia during the last Ice Age.Genomic studies suggest Denisovans had a relatively small population with low genetic diversity, implying a potentially limited overall population size.

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• In Argentina, paleontologists have recently unearthed fossil fragments belonging to a newly discovered species of dinosaur known as Sidersaura marae.
• Sidersaura marae is classified as a sauropod dinosaur that thrived during the Cenomanian age of the Late Cretaceous epoch, approximately 96 to 93 million years ago, in what is now the Patagonian region of South America. It is a member of the Rebbachisauridae family, a diverse group of sauropods known from fossil finds across South America, Africa, North America, Europe, and Asia.
• Rebbachisaurids are noted for their distinctive teeth, some of which resembled tooth batteries seen in hadrosaurs and ceratopsian dinosaurs. They played significant roles in Cretaceous ecosystems but disappeared around 90 million years ago during a mid-Cretaceous extinction event.
• Sidersaura marae stands out as one of the last known rebbachisaurids. It reached lengths of up to 20 meters, weighed an estimated 15 tons, and boasted an exceptionally long tail. Notably, the dinosaur's hemal arches—the bones in its tail—feature a unique star-shaped configuration, setting it apart from its relatives.
• Unlike other rebbachisaurids, Sidersaura marae exhibits robust skull bones and a distinct frontoparietal foramen—a hole in the skull's roof—that distinguishes it further within its family. These anatomical features provide valuable insights into the evolutionary diversity and adaptations of sauropod dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous period.

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• A newly identified dinosaur species, Alpkarakush kyrgyzicus, has been discovered in Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia, dating back approximately 165 million years.
• About Alpkarakush kyrgyzicus:
• Alpkarakush kyrgyzicus is a newly recognized species of large theropod dinosaur found in the Middle Jurassic Balabansai formation in the northern region of the Fergana Depression, Kyrgyzstan. This dinosaur lived during the Callovian stage of the Jurassic period, roughly between 165 and 161 million years ago.
• The ancient predator measured between 7 and 8 meters in length and featured a distinctive protruding ‘eyebrow’ on the postorbital bone—a skull bone located behind the eye socket—suggesting the presence of a horn in this area.
• It is classified within the Metriacanthosauridae family, which comprises medium-to-large-sized allosauroid theropod dinosaurs. Members of this group are known for their high-arched skulls, elongated neural spines resembling plates, and slender hindlimbs.
• Theropod dinosaurs, a major group within the dinosaur family, include some of the most famous predators like Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus, as well as modern birds. Alpkarakush kyrgyzicus is notably the first large Jurassic predatory dinosaur discovered between Central Europe and East Asia.

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• The International Buddhist Confederation, in partnership with the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, recently hosted a two-day International Conference on the Life and Legacy of Guru Padmasambhava at Nalanda, Bihar.
• Guru Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, was a prominent figure in Buddhist tradition who lived in the eighth century in ancient India. Revered as a key founder of Tibetan Buddhism, he arrived in Tibet in 749 A.D. He is renowned for spreading the teachings of Lord Buddha throughout the Himalayan region, including India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Tibet. A Tantrist and a member of the Yogācāra sect, he also taught at Nalanda, a major center for Buddhist studies in India. Guru Padmasambhava is known for integrating various cultural elements, including Yogic and Tantric practices, meditation, art, music, dance, magic, folklore, and religious teachings.
• Key Facts about the International Buddhist Confederation:
  • The International Buddhist Confederation, based in New Delhi, is a global organization that provides a unified platform for Buddhists worldwide. Founded with the support of the highest Buddhist religious authorities, it currently encompasses over 320 member organizations, both monastic and lay, across 39 countries.

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• Recently, the 127th anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi was commemorated on September 12, recognized as one of the most remarkable last stands in military history.
• The battle took place on September 12, 1897, in what was then the North-West Frontier Province of British India, specifically at the Saragarhi post. On that day, just 21 soldiers from the 36th Sikh Regiment (now the 4 Sikh) led by Havildar Ishar Singh, along with a non-combatant named Daad, faced off against over 8,000 Afridi and Orakzai tribal militants. This act of bravery is celebrated as one of the greatest last stands in global military history.
• How the Fallen Soldiers are Honored:
  • In 2017, the Punjab government designated September 12 as Saragarhi Day, marking it as a holiday to honor the soldiers. Additionally, the Khyber Scouts regiment of the Pakistani army continues to pay tribute by mounting a guard and saluting the Saragarhi memorial near Fort Lockhart. Following the British retaking of the fort days later, they used burnt bricks from Saragarhi to construct an obelisk in memory of the martyrs.
• Importance of Saragarhi Post for the British:
  • Saragarhi served as a crucial outpost, strategically located between the two forts, Lockhart and Gulistan, which were originally established by Ranjit Singh during his western campaigns. For the British, it was essential for monitoring potential aggressive actions by Afghan forces. The Saragarhi post played a vital role in connecting these key forts, which housed a significant number of British troops in the challenging terrain of the North-West Frontier Province.

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• Kandukuri Veeresalingam was a prominent social reformer and writer in 19th-century India, particularly known for his contributions to Telugu literature.
• Born on April 16, 1848, in Andhra Pradesh, he played a pivotal role in advocating for social reforms, especially in the areas of women's rights and education.
• Veeresalingam initiated the widow remarriage movement in Telugu-speaking regions, challenging social norms and advocating for the rights of widows to remarry.
• He founded the first widow remarriage association in 1874, called the "Hitakarini Sabha," which worked to promote education and social upliftment for women.
• As a prolific writer, he authored numerous literary works, including novels, plays, essays, and poetry, addressing various social issues and advocating for progressive ideas.
• His notable works include "Rajasekhara Charitramu," "Chintamani," and "Ratnamala," which not only entertained but also enlightened readers about societal issues.
• Veeresalingam's efforts significantly influenced the cultural and intellectual landscape of Andhra Pradesh, leaving a lasting impact on the region's literature and social reform movements.

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• Usha Mehta was a prominent figure in India's freedom struggle against British rule.
• Born on March 25, 1920, in Mumbai, she was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence.
• Mehta actively participated in the Quit India Movement of 1942, despite being a student at that time.
• She played a crucial role in underground activities, organizing secret meetings and distributing nationalist literature.
• Alongside her mentor, Ram Manohar Lohia, she established the "Secret Congress Radio," which broadcasted messages of freedom and resistance against British rule.
• Despite facing the threat of arrest and imprisonment, she continued her efforts to mobilize people against colonial rule.
• After India gained independence in 1947, Usha Mehta dedicated herself to social causes and education, emphasizing the importance of civic responsibility.
• She received several awards and honors for her contributions to the Indian freedom movement, including the Padma Vibhushan, India's second-highest civilian award.
• Usha Mehta's life and work remain an inspiration for future generations, symbolizing the power of determination and sacrifice in the pursuit of freedom and justice.

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• Recently, scientists have uncovered more than 300 previously unseen Nazca Lines in Peru.
• What are Nazca Lines?
  • The Nazca Lines consist of a collection of large geoglyphs intricately carved into the ground, spanning an area of approximately 170 square miles (440 square kilometers) within the Nazca Desert of Peru. These ancient artworks were likely created by the pre-Incan Nazca civilization (or Nasca) between 200 B.C. and A.D. 500. The Nazca people removed the upper layers of reddish pebbles from the desert surface to expose lighter soil beneath, forming a variety of shapes and sizes.
  • Since their rediscovery by airplane passengers in the 1920s, researchers have documented around 430 Nazca Lines. In the past 20 years, advancements in satellite imagery have significantly aided in identifying many of these geoglyphs.

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• The Tamil Nadu government has approved plans for a memorial honoring social reformer Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, a key figure in the Vaikom Satyagraha, to be built in Arookutty, Alappuzha, Kerala.
• About the Vaikom Satyagraha:
  • The Vaikom Satyagraha was a significant social reform movement that took place in Vaikom, then part of the princely state of Travancore, in Kottayam district, from 1924 to 1925. This movement marked the beginning of the temple entry struggles in India.
• Background:
  • The Vaikom Mahadevar Temple stood at the heart of the town, where Dalits faced restrictions, barred from entering the temple and using the roads surrounding it. In 1923, during an All India Congress Committee meeting in Kakinada, T.K. Madhavan, alongside Sardar Panikkar and K.P. Kesava Menon, submitted a petition to the Travancore Legislative Council. This petition called for the right of all individuals, regardless of caste or community, to enter temples and worship.
  • As regional leaders like K. Kelappan toured the area, they demanded that all individuals be allowed to use the roads, but temple authorities refused. This denial sparked the start of the Satyagraha, led by notable figures such as K. Kelappan, T.K. Madhavan, and K.P. Kesava Menon. Young volunteers from across Kerala joined the struggle against untouchability, and many influential political and social leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, supported the movement. Gandhi visited Vaikom in 1925 to show his solidarity.
  • On April 13, 1924, after several leaders were imprisoned, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy arrived in Vaikom and provided essential leadership to the movement. Sree Narayana Guru also offered his support and cooperation. Despite efforts by authorities to suppress the protest, the Satyagraha ultimately succeeded in allowing public access to the temple roads.
  • The Satyagraha concluded on November 23, 1925, after 604 days of persistent struggle beginning in March 1924. Just three years later, the Travancore government mandated that temple roads across the state be opened to all.

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• The Madhya Pradesh cabinet has recently approved the establishment of a panel to create a memorial and garden dedicated to Gond queen Rani Durgavati, with a budget of Rs 100 crore.
• About Rani Durgavati:
  • Rani Durgavati (1524-2024) was a descendant of the illustrious Chandela dynasty of Mahoba and served as the queen of the Gond kingdom of Garha-Katanga.
  • She was born on October 5, 1524, into the family of the notable Chandela emperor Keerat Rai. The Chandela dynasty is renowned in Indian history for its courageous king Vidyadhar, who successfully defended against the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, and for its remarkable temples in Khajuraho and Kalanjar Fort, reflecting a rich heritage of sculpture.
  • Born in Kalinjar (Banda, U.P.), a significant medieval fort, Rani Durgavati married Dalpatshah, the eldest son of King Sangramshah of the Gond Dynasty, in 1542, strengthening ties between the Chandela and Gond dynasties.
  • She gave birth to a son, Vir Narayan, in 1545. Following Dalpatshah's death around 1550, and with her son being too young to rule, Durgavati took charge of the Gond kingdom.
  • With the assistance of two ministers, Adhar Kayastha and Man Thakur, she effectively managed the administration and relocated her capital from Singaurgarh to Chauragarh, a strategically important fort in the Satpura hill range.
  • During her reign, trade flourished, and the people experienced prosperity. Emulating her husband’s legacy, she expanded her territory and achieved the political unification of Gondwana, also known as Garha-Katanga, through her bravery, generosity, and diplomacy.
  • As a formidable warrior, Rani Durgavati successfully fought against Baz Bahadur, the Sultan of Malwa. However, in 1562, after Akbar defeated Baz Bahadur and annexed Malwa into the Mughal Empire, Rani Durgavati found her state borders touching the Mughal realm.
  • She is best remembered for her valiant defense of Gondwana against the Mughal Empire, showcasing immense courage and leadership. Although she ultimately faced defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces, her legacy as a warrior remains indelible.

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• Researchers have recently found living microbes in a 2-billion-year-old rock from the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South Africa, shedding light on early life on Earth and possibly assisting in the search for life on Mars.
• About the Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC):
  • The BIC is the largest layered igneous intrusion in the Earth's crust.
  • Located in northern South Africa, it is exposed at the edge of the Transvaal Basin.
  • It spans a pear-shaped area of over 66,000 square kilometers.
  • The complex can reach a thickness of up to 9 kilometers (5.6 miles).
  • It is famous for its rich mineral deposits.
  • The BIC holds the world’s largest reserves of platinum-group metals (PGMs), including platinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium, and ruthenium, along with significant quantities of iron, tin, chromium, titanium, and vanadium.
  • The complex is divided into eastern and western lobes, with an additional northern extension, all formed around 2 billion years ago.
• Formation:
  • Massive amounts of molten rock from the Earth's mantle were forced to the surface through vertical fissures in the crust, creating the geological intrusion known as the BIC. Over time, these injections of molten rock, combined with the crystallization of various minerals at different temperatures, led to a layered structure resembling a cake, with distinct rock strata, including three PGM-rich layers called reefs.

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• To commemorate the 62nd anniversary of the historic Battle of Walong during the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the Army is organizing a month-long series of remembrance events.
• About the Battle of Walong:
  • The battle took place during the 1962 Sino-Indian War at the easternmost edge of Arunachal Pradesh, near the tri-junction of India, China, and Myanmar.
  • As Chinese forces launched a major offensive, Indian troops were assigned to defend Walong, the region's only advanced landing ground, crucial for maintaining supply routes to remote border posts.
  • Following Tawang, Walong represented China's primary offensive in the eastern sector of the war.
  • The Chinese forces enjoyed a significant numerical advantage, with approximately 15,000 troops compared to India’s 2,500, bolstered by superior weaponry and artillery.
  • Despite being heavily outnumbered and outgunned, Indian soldiers demonstrated extraordinary bravery and determination.
  • The Indian Army units involved included battalions from the Kumaon Regiment, Sikh Regiment, Gorkha Rifles, Assam Rifles, and Dogra Regiment.
  • Their tenacity allowed them to resist the Chinese advance for nearly three weeks, despite facing severe shortages of ammunition and supplies.
  • The battle resulted in considerable losses for India, with around 830 soldiers killed, wounded, or captured.
  • Nevertheless, their defense remains a powerful symbol of the valor and sacrifice of the Indian Army and is noted as the only Indian counterattack during the 1962 war.

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• Archaeologists have made an astonishing discovery in Petra, Jordan, unearthing a hidden tomb that contains 2000-year-old skeletons alongside a chalice reminiscent of the legendary Holy Grail.
• About Petra:
  • Petra is an ancient city steeped in history and archaeology, situated in southern Jordan. It served as the heart of an Arab kingdom during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Established around 312 BCE, Petra has a rich legacy of nearly 2000 years. It was the capital of the Nabataean people, an Arab tribe mentioned in biblical texts. Under Nabataean rule, Petra flourished as a vital hub for spice trade, connecting diverse regions including China, Egypt, Greece, and India.
  • In 106 CE, the Romans conquered Petra, transforming it into the Roman province of Arabia. The city continued to thrive through the second and third centuries, until it fell under Islamic control in the seventh century. In the 12th century, Petra was claimed by various rulers and remained obscured from the world until its rediscovery by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812.
• Features:
  • Many of Petra's iconic structures are intricately carved into the vibrant sandstone cliffs. The name "Petra" derives from the Greek word for "rock." The city is nestled on a terrace through which the Wadi Musa (the Valley of Moses) flows from east to west, bordered by stunning sandstone cliffs displaying hues of red, purple, and pale yellow.
  • Petra is known for its approximately 800 tombs, famously referred to as the "Royal Tombs," with the most celebrated being ‘The Treasury.’ To sustain its large population, the ancient city boasted an elaborate hydrological system, featuring dams, cisterns, rock-hewn water channels, and ceramic pipes.
  • Often called the “Rose City” for the color of its stone, Petra was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, recognizing its cultural significance and breathtaking beauty.

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• Lothal is an archaeological site located in the Bhal region of Dholka, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. It is one of the key cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), with its origins tracing back to around 2400 BC. Notably, Lothal is the only known port town of the IVC.
• The site was discovered by Indian archaeologist SR Rao in 1954. Like other cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Lothal is known for its impressive architecture and advanced town planning.
• The most remarkable feature of Lothal is its dockyard, which served as a harbor for ships. It is recognized as the world’s oldest known artificial dock, linked to an ancient branch of the Sabarmati River. Lothal was a prominent hub for trade and commerce in ancient times, further cementing its importance in the region's history.

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• Researchers have recently identified a new species of ancient humans, named Homo juluensis, which translates to "big head," based partly on a notably large skull discovered in China.
• About Homo juluensis:
  • Homo juluensis is a newly recognized species of ancient humans characterized by distinctively large skulls. This species, referred to as the "big head people," existed around 300,000 years ago and lived in small groups across eastern Asia before disappearing approximately 50,000 years ago.
  • The species shares some traits with enigmatic groups like the Denisovans, ancient human relatives whose history is still being explored. Fossils attributed to H. juluensis, mostly consisting of facial and jaw remains, reveal dental characteristics similar to those of Neanderthals.
  • Initial analysis suggests that their braincases were up to 30% larger than those of Homo sapiens. The species hunted wild horses in small groups, crafted stone tools, and likely processed animal hides to aid in their survival.

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• A complete and annotated edition of the works of C. Subramania Bharati will be unveiled by the Prime Minister in New Delhi.
• About C. Subramania Bharati:
  • C. Subramania Bharati was a renowned poet, freedom fighter, and social reformer from Tamil Nadu. He was affectionately known as Mahakavi Bharathiyar, with "Mahakavi" meaning "great poet." Born in Ettayapuram, South India, in 1882, he passed away in Madras in 1921. Bharati is celebrated as one of India's greatest poets, whose songs on nationalism and India's freedom played a crucial role in inspiring the masses to support the Indian Independence Movement, particularly in Tamil Nadu.
  • In 1904, Bharati joined the Tamil daily Swadesamitran as Assistant Editor. By 1907, he began editing India, a Tamil weekly, and the English newspaper Bala Bharatham alongside M.P.T. Acharya. He also collaborated with Aurobindo on the Arya journal and later worked with Karma Yogi in Pondicherry.
  • Despite facing persecution for his beliefs both from the British authorities and orthodox elements of his own society, Bharati remained steadfast in his ideals. Exiled from British India in 1908, he lived in Pondicherry, a French colony, for a decade before returning to Madras, where he died.
  • Bharati's compositions are largely short lyrical expressions on patriotic, devotional, and mystical themes, with his works often categorized as lyrical poetry. His most famous compositions include Kaṇṇan Pattu (1917; Songs to Krishna), Panchali Sapatham (1912; Panchali's Vow), and Kuyil Pattu (1912; Kuyil's Song). He also translated Vedic hymns, Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, and the Bhagavad Gita into Tamil.

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• The creation of the All-India Muslim League was preceded by the Aligarh Movement, which promoted Muslim education and political consciousness, as well as the Simla Deputation of 1906, when Muslim leaders met with Lord Minto II (1905-1910) to demand separate political representation.
• Through the Lucknow Pact of 1916, the All-India Muslim League maintained its demand for separate electorates, which led Congress to agree to this demand for Muslims. While this was a major concession for the League, it also contributed to the growth of communal politics in India.

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• An analysis of stable isotope data from seven hominin specimens, dating back 3.5 million years from Sterkfontein in South Africa, reveals that Australopithecus likely had a varied, predominantly plant-based diet.
• About Australopithecus:
  • Australopithecus, a genus of extinct primates, is represented by a collection of fossils found at various locations across eastern, north-central, and southern Africa. These hominins are considered the closest known relatives of the genus Homo, which includes modern humans.
  • The different species of Australopithecus inhabited Earth between 4.4 million and 1.4 million years ago, spanning the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs (from 5.3 million to 11,700 years ago). The name "Australopithecus," meaning “southern ape,” was derived from the discovery of the first fossils in South Africa.
  • One of the most renowned specimens of this genus is "Lucy," a well-preserved fossilized skeleton from Ethiopia, dated to 3.2 million years ago.
• Features:
  • Fossil evidence indicates that Australopithecus exhibited a blend of human-like and ape-like traits. Members of this genus had facial features resembling those of apes, such as a flat nose and a protruding lower jaw, along with a small braincase (less than 500 cubic centimeters, roughly one-third the size of a modern human brain). They also had long, powerful arms and curved fingers suited for tree climbing.
  • Their small canine teeth, characteristic of early humans, and their ability to walk upright on two legs further distinguish them from other primates. Australopithecus species were about 1.2 to 1.5 meters tall, weighing between 30 and 50 kilograms. Males were typically nearly twice the size of females, demonstrating a high degree of sexual dimorphism—greater than in modern chimpanzees or humans, but less than in gorillas or orangutans.
  • Their diet was primarily plant-based, consisting of leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, nuts, and insects.

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• Geologists and forest department officials have recently discovered a rare and remarkably preserved petrified fossil in the Rajmahal Hills near Barmasia village, located in the Pakur district of Jharkhand.
• Understanding Petrification:
  • Petrification (from the Greek word "petros," meaning stone) is a process where organic material is gradually replaced by minerals, transforming the fossil into a stone-like structure.
  • This typically happens when minerals fill the pores and spaces within the tissue, gradually dissolving the organic matter and substituting it with minerals. The result is an exact replica of the original tissue in every detail, preserving even soft tissues in some cases.
  • This phenomenon usually occurs when the organic material is buried under layers of sediment and exposed to mineral-rich water over long periods. Petrification plays a key role in many types of fossilization, producing some of the most beautifully preserved specimens, such as petrified wood.

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• The End-Permian Mass Extinction, which wiped out 80% of life on Earth around 250 million years ago, might not have been as devastating for plant life as previously believed, new fossil evidence suggests.
• About the End-Permian Mass Extinction (EPME):
  • The End-Permian Mass Extinction (EPME), also referred to as the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event or "The Great Dying," stands as the most catastrophic extinction event in Earth's history. It occurred roughly 252 million years ago, marking the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods. The Triassic Period, the first of the Mesozoic Era, lasted from 252 million to 201 million years ago.
• Cause:
  • At this time, the supercontinent Pangea was in the process of splitting apart, but all landmasses were still largely grouped together, with newly formed continents separated by shallow seas. A massive volcanic event in the Siberian Traps is believed to have driven carbon dioxide levels to extreme levels. This eruption, one of the largest in Earth's history, spanned an area of about 2 million square kilometers, covering vast regions with lava. The massive volcanic activity likely released huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to global warming, with temperatures rising over 10°C on land and around 8°C on the surface of the oceans in a relatively short time. The eruption may have also released aerosols and ash clouds that blocked sunlight, halting photosynthesis and triggering the collapse of many food webs. These climatic shifts, combined with ocean acidification, caused a widespread collapse of marine ecosystems.
• Impacts:
  • The EPME resulted in the extinction of approximately 90% of Earth's species, including over 95% of marine life and 70% of terrestrial species. Additionally, more than half of all taxonomic families at the time were wiped out. It remains the most severe of the five major extinction events that have shaped the planet’s history.

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• Why in News?
  • On the occasion of his Martyr's Day, the Prime Minister paid homage to Bhagwan Birsa Munda, honoring his legacy as a fearless tribal leader and freedom fighter.
• Key Provisions:-
  • Born in Ulihatu village in the Chotanagpur Plateau of present-day Jharkhand, Birsa Munda belonged to the Munda tribe and was revered as ‘Dharti Aaba’ or the ‘Father of the Earth’.
  • Birsa Munda led the Ulgulan, or "The Great Tumult," between 1899 and 1900—a significant tribal revolt against British colonial rule and exploitative land policies. He also established a socio-religious movement known as the Birsait sect, which aimed to reform tribal society.
  • He campaigned against social evils like alcoholism, witchcraft, and superstitions, while promoting hygiene and community awareness. Birsa's legacy embodies values such as courage, justice, leadership, and a progressive outlook. His contributions remain a powerful symbol of tribal pride and resistance against oppression.